-
1 selected communication mode
выбранный режим связи
(МСЭ-Т Н.225).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > selected communication mode
-
2 Selected Communication Mode (SCM)
выбор режима связиEnglish-Russian dictionary of modern telecommunications > Selected Communication Mode (SCM)
-
3 SCM
- управление цепочками поставок
- управление поставками
- управление мощностями услуг
- уплотнение поднесущей
- рынок мелких компаний
- режим конденсации пара
- память (запоминающее устройство) небольшой емкости на (магнитных) сердечниках
- модуляция отдельной несущей
- менеджер управления услугой
- концепция стратегического управления издержками
- выбранный режим связи
выбранный режим связи
(МСЭ-Т Н.225).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
концепция стратегического управления издержками
Появление SCM явилось результатом слияния трех направлений стратегического менеджмента:
1. Анализ цепочек ценностей.
2. Стратегическое позиционирование.
3. Анализ и управления факторами, определяющими затраты.
Под цепочкой ценностей понимают согласованный набор видов деятельности, создающих ценность для предприятия, начиная от исходных источников сырья для поставщиков данного предприятия вплоть до готовой продукции, доставленной конечному пользователю, включая обслуживание потребителя. Акцент делается не только на процессах, происходящих внутри фирмы, а гораздо более широко, выходя за рамки конкретного предприятия.
Стратегическое позиционирование влияет на процессы управления издержками предприятия в зависимости от его стратегического выбора создания конкурентных преимуществ. Согласно Портеру, предприятие может добиться успеха в конкурентном соперничестве
либо поддерживая низкие затраты (лидерство на основе затрат)
либо предлагая потребителям разнообразную, превосходящую конкурентов, продукцию (стратегия дифференциации продукции).
Совершенно очевидно, что подходы к управлению издержками будут различаться в зависимости от стратегического позиционирования.
Список затратообразующих факторов далеко не исчерпывается носителями издержек, которые соответствуют определенным этапам бизнес-процессов и элементам деятельности в ABC-анализе. Эти факторы подразделяются на структурные и функциональные и имеют достаточно высокую степень общности. Например, один из наиболее важных функциональных факторов - это фактор вовлеченности рабочей силы, который состоит в степени принятия работниками на себя обязательств по постоянному усовершенствованию. Затратобразующие факторы также зависят от стратегической ориентации предприятия, которая состоит в выборе: быть лидером в своей отрасли или двигаться вслед за лидером.
Отличие традиционного подхода к управлению издержками от SCM состоит в принципиально другом мировоззрении в отношении к процессу управления издержками:
Отличие с точки зрения цели. Целью в рамках традиционного подхода является снижение издержек любыми путями, как основной способ удержания и завоевания конкурентных преимуществ. В рамках SCM эта цель также имеет место, но планирование системы управления затратами резко меняется в зависимости от основного стратегического позиционирования предприятия: лидерство по затратам или дифференциация продукции. Более того, в рамках каждого из стратегических направлений возможно планирование увеличения значения издержек на каком-либо участке цепочки ценностей, если это вызовет адекватное снижение издержек для других участков либо принесет фирме некоторое другое конкурентное преимущество.
Отличие с точки зрения способов анализа издержек. В традиционном подходе производится оценка суммы затрат (себестоимости), приходящихся на единицу продукции или производственное подразделение. Таким образом, акцент делается на внутреннее положение предприятия. Концепция добавленной ценности (или стоимости) играет ключевую роль. Напомним, что согласно этой концепции все виды деятельности, приводящие к издержкам, подразделяются на таковые, которые приносят дополнительную ценность (и, следовательно, их наличие оправдано) и не приносящие дополнительную ценность. Последние рассматриваются как наиболее перспективные с точки зрения снижения затрат. В рамках SCM стоимость рассматривается с точки зрения различных этапов общей цепочки ценностей, частью которой являются предприятии и его подразделение. Концепция же добавленной стоимости рассматривается как очень узкая и даже опасная.
Отличия с точки зрения описания поведения затрат. В рамках традиционной системы издержки рассматриваются главным образом как функция объема продукции. И в связи с этим производится обстоятельный анализ переменных, постоянных и смешанных издержек. Объем продукции рассматривается как критический фактор образования затрат. С позиций SCM затраты прежде всего зависят от стратегического выбора. И в этой связи затраты являются функцией гораздо более общих структурных и функциональных факторов.
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]Тематики
EN
менеджер управления услугой
—
[Л.Г.Суменко. Англо-русский словарь по информационным технологиям. М.: ГП ЦНИИС, 2003.]Тематики
EN
модуляция отдельной несущей
(МСЭ-Т Н.610).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
память (запоминающее устройство) небольшой емкости на (магнитных) сердечниках
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]Тематики
EN
рынок мелких компаний
Рынок ценных бумаг и акций, некотируемых на основной бирже (unlisted securities) в Ирландии.
[ http://www.vocable.ru/dictionary/533/symbol/97]Тематики
EN
уплотнение поднесущей
(МСЭ-Т G.983.3).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
управление мощностями услуг
SCM
(ITIL Continual Service Improvement)
(ITIL Service Design)
Подпроцесс управления мощностями, отвечающий за понимание производительности и мощности ИТ-услуг. Информация о ресурсах, используемых каждой ИТ-услугой, и профилях использования накапливается, фиксируется и анализируется для использования в плане обеспечения мощностей.
См. тж. управление мощностями бизнеса; управление мощностями компонентов.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]EN
service capacity management
SCM
(ITIL Continual Service Improvement)
(ITIL Service Design)
The sub-process of capacity management responsible for understanding the performance and capacity of IT services. Information on the resources used by each IT service and the pattern of usage over time are collected, recorded and analysed for use in the capacity plan.
See also business capacity management; component capacity management.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]Тематики
Синонимы
EN
управление поставками
Управление цепочкой процессов, обеспечивающих выпуск продукции
[Л.Г.Суменко. Англо-русский словарь по информационным технологиям. М.: ГП ЦНИИС, 2003.]Тематики
EN
управление цепочками поставок
Здесь цепочка поставок - это глобальная сеть, которая преобразует исходное сырье в продукты и услуги, необходимые конечному потребителю, используя спроектированный поток информации, материальных ценностей и денежных средств.
Исследователи выделяют шесть основных областей, на которых сосредоточено управление цепочками поставок: Производство, Поставки, Месторасположение, Запасы, Транспортировка и Информация. Все решения по управлению цепочками поставок делятся на две категории: стратегические (strategic) и тактические (operational). Производство (Production).
Компания решает, что именно и как производить.
Стратегические решения относительно производства продукции (торговля и оказание услуг - это тоже вид производства) принимаются на основе изучения потребительского спроса. Тактические решения сосредоточены на планировании объемов производства, рабочей загрузки и обслуживания оборудования, контроле качества и т. д. Поставки (Supply).
Затем компания должна определить, что она будет производить самостоятельно, а какие компоненты (комплектующие, товары или услуги) покупать у сторонних фирм.
Стратегические решения касаются перечня приобретаемых компонентов и требований к их поставщикам относительно скорости, качества и гибкости поставок.
Тактические же относятся к текущему управлению поставками для обеспечения необходимого уровня производства. Месторасположение (Location).
Решения о месторасположении производственных мощностей, центров складирования и источников поставок полностью относятся к стратегическим. Они зависят от характера рынка, отраслевой специфики, а также от политической и экономической ситуации в регионе. Запасы (Inventory).
Основная цель запасов - страхование от непредвиденных случаев, таких, как всплеск спроса или задержка поставок. Прогнозирование поведения потребителей, организация бесперебойного снабжения и гибкость производства, хотя, на первый взгляд, и не связаны с уровнем запасов, но на самом деле оказывают на него непосредственное влияние.
Поэтому стратегические решения направлены на выработку политики компании в отношении запасов. К слову, среднестатистическое предприятие вкладывает в запасы около 30% всех своих активов (до 90% оборотных средств), а расходы на содержание запасов обходятся в 20--40% их стоимости. Тактические решения сосредоточены на поддержании оптимального уровня запасов в каждом узле сети для бесперебойного удовлетворения колебаний потребительского спроса. Транспортировка (Transportation). Решения, связанные с транспортировкой, в основном, относятся к стратегическим. Они зависят от месторасположения участников цепочки поставок, политики в отношении запасов и требуемого уровня обслуживания клиентов. Важно определить правильные способы и эффективные методы оперативного управления транспортировкой, так как эти операции составляют около 30% общих расходов на снабжение, и именно с опозданиями в доставке связано в среднем более 70% ошибок в распределении товаров. Информация (Information). Эффективное функционирование цепочки поставок невозможно без оперативного обмена данными между всеми ее участниками.
Стратегические решения касаются источников информации, ее содержания, механизмов и средств распределения, а также правил доступа. Тактические решения направлены на интеграцию информационных систем участников цепочки поставок в общую инфраструктуру.
В составе SCM-системы можно условно выделить две подсистемы
SCP (Supply Chain Planning)
Планирование цепочек поставок. Основу SCP составляют системы для расширенного планирования и формирования календарных графиков (APS). При изменении информации о прогнозах спроса, уровне запасов, сроках поставок, взаиморасположении торговых партнеров и т. д. APS-система позволяет оперативно проанализировать перемены и внести необходимые коррективы в расписание поставок и производства. В SCP также входят системы для совместной разработки прогнозов. Они ориентированы на торговые пары "поставщик-покупатель" и позволяют сравнивать информацию о прогнозах спроса, поступившую от покупателей, с прогнозами наличия необходимой продукции, полученной от поставщиков. Результатом является сбалансированный прогноз, согласованный с обеими заинтересованными сторонами. В основе работы этих систем лежит стандарт совместного планирования, прогнозирования и пополнения запасов (CPFR - Collaborative Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment -), разработанный ассоциацией VICS (Voluntary Interindustry Commerce Standards).
Помимо решения задач оперативного управления, SCP-системы позволяют осуществлять стратегическое планирование структуры цепочки поставок: разрабатывать планы сети поставок, моделировать различные ситуации, оценивать уровень выполнения операций, сравнивать плановые и текущие показатели.
SCE (Supply Chain Execution)
Исполнение цепочек поставок. В подгруппу SCE входят TMS, WMS, OMS, а также MES-системы.
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > SCM
-
4 SCM
English-Russian dictionary of modern telecommunications > SCM
-
5 laser
сокр. от light amplification by stimulated emission of radiationлазер, оптический квантовый генератор-
acousto-optically tunable laser
-
acquisition laser
-
actively mode-locked laser
-
actively locked laser
-
actively stabilized laser
-
agile beam laser
-
alignment laser
-
all-chemical laser
-
alpha-particle laser
-
amorphous laser
-
amplified spontaneous emission laser
-
anisotropic laser
-
anorganic vapor laser
-
arc-driven laser
-
argon laser
-
astigmatic laser
-
asymmetric laser
-
atomic beam laser
-
avalanche discharge laser
-
avalanche injection laser
-
avalanche laser
-
axially excited laser
-
beam-expanded laser
-
bimorph laser
-
bistable laser
-
black-body pumped laser
-
black-body laser
-
bomb-pumped laser
-
Brewster-angled laser
-
broadband laser
-
broadband tunable laser
-
broad-spectral-width laser
-
buried heterostructure laser
-
buried laser
-
buried optical guide laser
-
burst laser
-
carbon dioxide laser
-
cascaded laser
-
catalac free electron laser
-
cataphoresis pumping laser
-
cavity laser
-
chain-reaction laser
-
channel-guide laser
-
chemical transfer laser
-
chemically etched groove-coupled lasers
-
chemically excited laser
-
chirped laser
-
chopped laser
-
circulating liquid laser
-
cleaved laser
-
cleaved mirror laser
-
cleaved-coupled-cavity laser
-
coherence brightened laser
-
cold laser
-
color center laser
-
combustion-heated gas-dynamic laser
-
communication laser
-
composite-rod laser
-
compression laser
-
condensed explosive laser
-
continuous laser
-
continuously excited laser
-
continuously operating laser
-
continuously pumped laser
-
continuously running laser
-
continuously tunable laser
-
continuous-wave laser
-
controlled frequency laser
-
controlled linewidth laser
-
convective laser
-
coolable slab laser
-
cooled laser
-
corner cube laser
-
corrugated laser
-
coupled-cavity laser
-
coupled-waveguide laser
-
coupling-modulated laser
-
crescent-shaped laser
-
crescent laser
-
cross-beam laser
-
cross-field laser
-
current modulated laser
-
current-tuned laser
-
current-wave laser
-
degenerate laser
-
detonation gas-dynamic laser
-
diffraction-coupled laser
-
diffraction-limited laser
-
diffraction-stabilized laser
-
diffused homojunction laser
-
diffused laser
-
digitalized scan laser
-
digitally modulated laser
-
dimer laser
-
diode laser
-
diode-pumped laser
-
directly modulated laser
-
discontinuously tuned laser
-
distributed laser
-
dithered ring laser
-
double mode-locked laser
-
double-beam laser
-
double-carrier-confined laser
-
double-doped laser
-
double-heterojunction laser
-
double-heterostructure laser
-
double-mode laser
-
double-pulse laser
-
double-quantum laser
-
dual-beam laser
-
dual-cavity laser
-
dual-line laser
-
dye laser
-
dynamic-single-mode laser
-
electrically excited laser
-
electric-discharge laser
-
electrogenerated chemiluminescence dye laser
-
electroionization laser
-
electron injection laser
-
electron transition laser
-
electron-beam-controlled discharge laser
-
electron-beam-driven laser
-
electronic laser
-
electrooptically modulated laser
-
electrooptically tuned laser
-
embedded heterostructure laser
-
end-pumped laser
-
energy-storage laser
-
epitaxial laser
-
etalon-controlled laser
-
evanescent-field pumped laser
-
excimer laser
-
exciplex laser
-
excited-state dimer laser
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exciton laser
-
explosion laser
-
explosion-heated gas-dynamic laser
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explosively driven laser
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external-cavity controlled laser
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externally modulated laser
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face-pumped laser
-
face-pump laser
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fagot laser
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fast axial flow laser
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fast Q-switched laser
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F-center laser
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fiber cavity laser
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fiber laser
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fiber-tailed laser
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film laser
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fixed frequency laser
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flame-pumped laser
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flame laser
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flashlamp-excited laser
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flowing-gas laser
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fluid laser
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forced mode-locked laser
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free electron laser
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free-running laser
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frequency selective laser
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frequency-chirped laser
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frequency-controlled laser
-
frequency-locked laser
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frequency-modulated laser
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frequency-multiplied laser
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frequency-narrowed laser
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frequency-switchable laser
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frequency-tuned laser
-
front-end discharge laser
-
fundamental mode laser
-
gain-guided laser
-
gain-switched laser
-
gallium arsenide laser
-
gamma-ray laser
-
gamma-ray-pumped laser
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gas laser
-
gas-discharge laser
-
gas-dynamic laser
-
gaseous laser
-
gas-transport laser
-
giant-pulse laser
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glass laser
-
graded-index laser
-
grating-controlled laser
-
heat-pumped laser
-
helium-diluted laser
-
helium-neon laser
-
heterojunction laser
-
high-coherence laser
-
high-energy laser
-
highly coherent laser
-
high-power laser
-
high-radiance laser
-
homogeneously broadened laser
-
homojunction laser
-
impact ionization laser
-
index-guided laser
-
infrared laser
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inhomogeneously broadened laser
-
injection laser
-
injection-locked laser
-
intensity-modulated laser
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internally doubled laser
-
internally scanned laser
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intracavity-doubled laser
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ion laser
-
ionization-assisted laser
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ionized laser
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isochronous storage ring laser
-
Javan's laser
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jet-stream dye laser
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junction laser
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kink-free laser
-
Lamb-dip stabilized laser
-
laser-pumped laser
-
lattice-matched laser
-
length-modulated laser
-
length-optimized laser
-
lens-coupled laser
-
lens-like laser
-
light-emitting-diode-pumped laser
-
light-pumped laser
-
line selectable laser
-
line-center stabilized laser
-
line-narrowed laser
-
liquid laser
-
locked laser
-
locking laser
-
longitudinal excited laser
-
long-wavelength laser
-
low-coherence laser
-
low-divergence laser
-
lower energy state depletion laser
-
low-power pumped laser
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low-threshold laser
-
magnetically confined ion laser
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magnetic-field-tuned laser
-
Maiman laser
-
master laser
-
mesa-stripe laser
-
metallic-vapor laser
-
Michelson-type laser
-
microwave laser
-
microwave-excited laser
-
microwave-modulated laser
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microwave-pumped laser
-
millimeter wave laser
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millimeter laser
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mirrorless laser
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mode-controlled laser
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mode-coupled laser
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mode-dumped laser
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mode-dump laser
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mode-limited laser
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mode-locked laser
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mode-selected laser
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mode-stabilized laser
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modulated laser
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modulating laser
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molecularly stabilized laser
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monomode laser
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monopulse laser
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multibeam laser
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multichip laser
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multifold laser
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multiline laser
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multiline selected laser
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multimode laser
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multiphoton laser
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multiple quantum-well laser
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multiple-host laser
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multiple-pulse laser
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multiple-stripe laser
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mutually quenched injection lasers
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narrow-band laser
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narrow-linewidth laser
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narrow-spectral-width laser
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Nd-glass laser
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Nd-YAG laser
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needle laser
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noble-gas ion laser
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noncavity laser
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non-mode-locked laser
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non-Q-switched laser
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nonstorage laser
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nonzero linewidth laser
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nuclear-activated laser
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nuclear-charged self-sustaining laser
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nuclear-pumped laser
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off-resonant pumped laser
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offset laser
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one-way laser
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operating laser
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optically coupled lasers
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optically excited laser
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parallel-plate laser
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partially mode-locked laser
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passively mode-locked laser
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passively stabilized laser
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phase conjugate laser
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phase-locked laser
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phase-modulated mode-locked laser
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phonon-terminated laser
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phosphor laser
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photochemical laser
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photoinitiated laser
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photon preionization laser
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photon-terminated laser
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photopreionized laser
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photopumped laser
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pigtailed laser
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pin laser
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pinch-discharge-pumped laser
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planar stripe contact laser
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plasmon laser
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platelet laser
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pointing laser
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polarization laser
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polarization-modulated laser
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preionization laser
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pressure-tuned laser
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prism dye laser
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prism-tunable laser
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pulsed laser
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pulse laser
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pulse-pumped laser
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pulsing laser
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pumping laser
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pump laser
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pyrotechnically pumped laser
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Q-spoiled laser
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quantum-well laser
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quenched laser
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quencher laser
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radioactive preionization laser
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Raman laser
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rare-earth-doped laser
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recombination laser
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reference laser
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refractive index guided laser
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resonantly pumped laser
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RF-excited laser
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ring laser
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room-temperature laser
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rotation laser
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ruby crystal laser
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ruby laser
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self-contained laser
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self-focused laser
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self-locked laser
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self-mode-locking laser
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selfoc laser
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self-sustained discharge laser
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semiconductor laser
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separate-confinement laser
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shock-tube laser
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shock-wave-driven laser
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single-heterojunction laser
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single-mode laser
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single-mode pumped laser
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single-pulse laser
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single-quantum well laser
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single-stage laser
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single-transition laser
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slave laser
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slotted cathode laser
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solar-powered laser
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solar-simulator-pumped laser
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solid-state laser
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solid laser
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soliton laser
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spark-initiated laser
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spectrally narrow laser
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spectrally scanning laser
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spiked laser
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spikeless laser
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spiking laser
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stability enhanced laser
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step-tunable laser
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storage laser
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storage-ring laser
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streamer laser
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stripe-contact laser
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stripe laser
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subsonic laser
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sun-pumped laser
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superficial laser
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superlattice laser
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supermode laser
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superradiant laser
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supersonic laser
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surface laser
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surface-wave-pumped laser
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swept laser
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symmetric laser
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synchronously pumped dye laser
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tandem laser
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tapered stripe laser
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telescope-expanded laser
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temperature-controlled laser
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temperature-stabilized laser
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temperature-tunable laser
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terraced-substrate laser
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thermally controlled laser
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thermally excited laser
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thermally stabilized laser
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thermally tuned laser
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time-sharing two-frequency laser
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torch laser
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transfer chemical laser
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transverse discharge laser
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transverse flow laser
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transverse-junction stripe laser
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transversely excited laser
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traveling-wave laser
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triode laser
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tunable laser
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twin-cavity laser
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two-excimer laser
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two-mode laser
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two-photon laser
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two-photon-pumped laser
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two-pulse laser
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ultraviolet laser
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unidirectional laser
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vibrational transition laser
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vibration-rotation laser
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volume-excited laser
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waveguide laser
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waveguide-coupled laser
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wavelength-tunable laser
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white laser
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wide-aperture laser
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X-ray laser
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X-ray preionized laser
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zero linewidth laser
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zigzag laser -
6 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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